Michele Lastella¹, Zozan Onay², Aaron T. Scanlan³, Nathan Elsworthy⁴, Nathan W. Pitchford⁵, Grace E. Vincent¹

¹Central Queensland University, Appleton Institute for Behavioural Science, Adelaide, SA, Australia
²Central Queensland University, School of Health, Medical and Applied Sciences, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
³Central Queensland University, Human Exercise and Training Laboratory, Rockhampton, QLD, Australia
⁴Central Queensland University, School of Health, Medical and Applied Sciences, Mackay, QLD, Australia
⁵University of Tasmania, Sports Performance Optimisation Research Team, School of Health Sciences, Launceston, TAS Australia

Wakeup Call: Reviewing the Effects of Sleep on Decision-Making in Athletes and Implications for Sports Officials

Monten. J. Sports Sci. Med. 2020, 9(2), 65-71 | DOI: 10.26773/mjssm.200907

Abstract

Although sports officials are essential in the adjudication of rules during competitions, research into officiating populations is preliminary. This review explores existing research on the effects of sleep loss on decision-making in athlete populations, to gain relevant insight into sports officials and the growing decision- making demands of their role. Specifically, cognitive factors that influence decision-making are identified, and the potential relationship between sleep/wake behaviours and decision-making in sports officials were examined. Particular focus was granted to sleep, specifically sleep restriction in athlete populations, and the hypothesized relationship between sleep/wake behaviours and decision-making in sports officials. Impaired sleep duration and quality has been shown to impair cognitive performance. In the context of sport, impairments to sleep can negatively impact motivation, physical strength, reaction time, and decision-making, all of which are imperative to the role of the sports official. Despite numerous studies demonstrating that sleep loss reduces cognitive performance in athletes, this review revealed that similar research in sports officials has surprisingly yet to be conducted. Since sports officials require a high level of cognitive and physical skills to make correct decisions, an inquiry into the influence of sleep on cognitive performance may encourage research that facilitates improved performance training methods for decision-making in officials. Such findings are important to maintain the standard of officiating and allow for the development of guidelines and strategies to manage sleep and optimize decision-making across various sporting codes.

Keywords

referee, umpire, mood, motivation, competition

View full article
(PDF – 95KB)

References

Akerstedt, T. (2007). Altered sleep/wake patterns and mental performance. Physiology and Behaviour, 90, 209-218. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2006.09.007

Almonroeder, T., Tighe, S., Miller, T., & Lanning, C. (2020). The influence of fatigue on decision-making in athletes: A systematic review. Sports Biomechanics, 19(1), 76-89. https://doi.org/10.1080/14763141.2018.1472798

Belenky, G., Wesensten, N., Thorne, D., Thomas, M., Sing, H., Redmond, D., Russo, M., & Balkin, T. (2003). Patterns of performance degradation and restoration during sleep restriction and subsequent recovery: A sleep dose-response study. Journal of Sleep Research, 12(1), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2869.2003.00337.x

Blumert, P., Crum, A., Ernsting, M., Volek, J., Hollander, D., Haff, E., & Haff, G. (2007). The acute effects of twenty-four hours of sleep loss on the performance of national-caliber male collegiate weightlifters. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 21(4), 1146-1154. https://doi.org/10.1519/R-21606.1

Brandt, R., Bevilacqua, G., & Andrande, A. (2017). Perceived sleep quality, mood states, and their relationship with performance among Brazilian elite athletes during a competitive period. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 31(4), 1033-1039. https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0000000000001551

Carlos L-P., Ezequiel R., & Anton, K. (2019). How does Video Assistant Referee (VAR) modify the game in elite soccer? International Journal of Performance Analysis in Sport, 19(4), 646-653. https://doi.org/10.1080/24748668.2019.1646521

Catteuw, P., Helsen, W., Gilis, B., & Wagemans, J. (2009). Decision-making skills, role specificity, and deliberate practice in association football refereeing. Journal of Sports Sciences, 27(11), 1125-1136. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640410903079179

Causer, J., & Ford, P. (2014). “Decisions, decisions, decisions”: Transfer and specificity of decision-making skill between sports. Cognitive Process, 15(3), 385-389. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10339-014-0598-0

Chua, E., Yeo, S., Lee, I., Tan, L., Lau, P., Cai, S., Zhang, X., Puvanendran, K., & Gooley, J. (2014). Sustained attention performance during sleep deprivation associates with instability in behavior and physiologic measures at baseline. Sleep Research Society, 37(1), 27-39. https://doi.org/10.5665/sleep.3302

Daviaux, Y., Mignardot, J., Cornu, C., & Deschamps, T. (2014). Effects of total sleep deprivation on the perception of action capabilities. Experimental Brain Research, 232(7), 2243-2253. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00221-014-3915-z

Demos, K., Hart, C., Sweet, L., Mailloux, K., Trautvetter, J., Williams, S., Wing, R., & McCaffery, J. (2016). Partial sleep deprivation impacts impulsive action but not impulsive decision-making. Physiology and Behavior, 164(PtA), 214-219. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2016.06.003

Dickson, S. (2002). How good are elite soccer referees? Just ask the players and coaches! In W. Spink (Ed.), Science and football IV. London: Routledge.

Durmer, J. S., & Dinges, D. F. (2005). Neurocognitive consequences of sleep deprivation. Seminars in Neurology, 25(1), 117-129. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-2005-867080

Eagles, A., McIellan, C., Hing, W., Carloss, N., & Lovell, D. (2016). Changes in sleep quantity and efficiency in professional rugby union players during home based training and match-play. The Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 56(5), 565-571. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25369280

Elsworthy, N., Burke, D., Scott, B., Stevens, C., & Dascombe, B. (2014). Physical and decision-making demands of Australian football umpires during competitive matches. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 28(12), 3502-3507. https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0000000000000567

Erlacher, D., Ehrlenspiel, F., Adegbesan, O., & El-Din, H. (2011). Sleep habits in German athletes before important competitions or games. Journal of Sports Sciences, 29(8), 859-866. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2011.565782

Fédération Internationale de Football Association. (2019). Laws of the game: Video Assistant Referee (VAR) protocol (pp. 134–142). Zurich: FIFA.

Frey, D., Badia, P., & Wright Jr, K. (2004). Inter and intra-individual variability in performance near the circadian nadir during sleep deprivation. Journal of Sleep Research, 13(4), 305-315. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2869.2004.00429.x

Gordijn, M., & Beersma, D. (2007). Circadian control of the sleep–wake cycle. Physiology and Behaviour, 90(2-3), 190-195. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2006.09.010

Gouttebarge, V., Backx, F., Aoki, H., & Kerkhoffs, G. (2015). Symptoms of common mental disorders in professional football (soccer) across five European countries. Journal of Sports Science and Medicine, 14(4), 811-818. https://doi.org/10.1080/00913847.2017.1248796

Gouttebarge, V., Johnson, U., Rochcongar, P., Rosier, P., & Kerkhoffs, G. (2017). Symptoms of common mental disorders among professional football referees: A one-season prospective study across Europe. The Physician and Sports Medicine, 45(1), 11-16. https://doi.org/10.1080/00913847.2017.1248796

Hancock, D., Rix-Lievre, G., & Cote, J. (2015). Citation network analysis of research on sport officials: A lack of interconnectivity. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 8(1), 95-105. https://doi.org/10.1080/1750984X.2015.1022202

Heinemann, K. (1990). Introduction to sport sociology. Schorndorf: Hofmann.

Helsen, W., & Bultynck, J.-B. (2004). Physical and perceptual-cognitive demands of top-class refereeing in association football. Journal of Sports Sciences, 22(2), 179-189. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640410310001641502

Hirshkowitz, M., Whiton, K., Albert, S. M., Alessi, C., Bruni, O., Doncarlos, L., Hazen, N., Herman, J., Katz, E., & Kheirandish-Gozal, L. (2015). National Sleep Foundation’s sleep time duration recommendations: Methodology and results summary. Sleep Health, 1(1), 40-43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleh.2014.12.010

Isidori, E., Muller, A., & Kaya, S. (2012). The referee as educator: Hermeneutical and pedagogical perspectives. Physical Culture and Sport, 56(1), 5-11. https://doi.org/10.2478/v10141-012-0023-2

Jarraya, S., Jarraya, M., Chtourou, H., & Souissi, N. (2013). Effect of time of day and partial sleep deprivation on the reaction time and the attentional capacities of the handball goalkeeper. Biological Rhythm Research, 45(2), 183-191. https://doi.org/10.1080/09291016.2013.787685

Juliff, L., Halson, S., & Peiffer, J. (2015). Understanding sleep disturbance in athletes prior to important competitions. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 18(1), 13-18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsams.2014.02.007

Junge, A., & Feddermann-Demont, N. (2016). Prevalence of depression and anxiety in top-level male and female football players. BMJ Open Sport and Exercise Medicine, 2(1), 1-7. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjsem-2015-000087

Konishi, K., Kimura, T., Yuhaku, A., Kurihara, T., Fujimoto, M., Hamaoka, T., & Sanada, K. (2017). Effect of sustained high-intensity exercise on executive function. The Journal of Physical Fitness and Sports Medicine, 6(2), 111-117. https://doi.org/10.7600/jpfsm.6.111

Larkin, P., Mesagno, C., Berry, J., & Spittle, M. (2018). Exploration of the perceptual-cognitive processes that contribute to in-game decision-making of Australian football umpires. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 16(2), 112-124. https://doi.org/10.1080/1612197X.2016.1167760

Lastella, M., Lovell, G., & Sargent, C. (2014). Athletes’ precompetitive sleep behavior and its relationship with subsequent precompetitive mood and performance. European Journal of Sport Science, 14(1), 123-130. https://doi.org/10.1080/17461391.2012.660505

Loewenstein, G., & Lerner, J. S. (2003). The role of affect in decision making. In R. Davidson, H. Goldsmith, & K. Scherer (Ed.), Handbook of Affective Science (pp. 619-642). Oxford, Oxford University Press.

MacMahon, C., & Plessner, H. (2013). The sport official in research and practice. In C. MacMahon, D. Farrow, & J. Baker, Developing sport expertise - researchers and coaches put theory into practice. London: Routledge.

MacMahon, C., Helsen, W., Starkes, J., & Weston, M. (2007). Decision-making skills and deliberate practice in elite association football referees. Journal of Sports Sciences, 25(1), 65-78. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640410600718640

MacMahon, C., Mascarhenhas, D., Plessner, H., Pizzera, A., Oudejans, R., & Raab, M. (2014). Sport officials and officiating: Science and practice. NY: Routledge.

Mallo, J., Frutos, P., Juarez, D., & Navarro, E. (2012). Effect of positioning on the accuracy of decision making of association football top-class referees and assistant referees during competitive matches. Journal of Sports Sciences, 30(13), 1437-1445. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2012.711485

Martin, B. (1981). Effect of sleep deprivation on tolerance of prolonged exercise. European Journal of Applied Physiology and Occupational Physiology, 47(4), 345-354, https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02332962

Mascarenhas, D., Collins, D., & Mortimer, P. (2005). Elite refereeing performance: Developing a model for sport science support. The Sport Psychologist, 19(4), 364-379. https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.19.4.364

Mascarenhas, D., O'hare, D., & Plessner, H. (2006). The psychological and performance demands of association football refereeing. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 37(2), 99-120. https://doi.org/10.2174/1875399X0090201000

Morris, G., & O'Connor, D. (2017). Key attributes of expert NRL referees. Journal of Sports Sciences, 35(9), 852-857. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2016.1194524

Nebes, R., Buysse, D., Halligan, E., Houck, P., & Monk, T. (2009). Self-reported sleep quality predicts poor cognitive performance in healthy older adults. The Journals of Gerontology, 64B(2), 180-187. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbn037

Nevill, A. M., Balmer, N. J., & Williams, A. M. (2002). The influence of crowd noise and experience upon refereeing decision in football. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 3, 261–272.

Neville, T., Salmon, P., & Read, G. (2017). Analysis of in-game communication as an indicator of recognition primed decision making in elite Australian rules football umpires. Journal of Cognitive Engineering and Decision Making, 11(1), 81-96. https://doi.org/10.1177/1555343416672557

Page, K., & Page, L. (2010). Alone against the crowd: Individual differences in referees' ability to cope under pressure. Journal of Economic Psychology, 31(2), 192-199. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joep.2009.08.007

Pallesen, S., Gundersen, H., Kristoffersen, M., Bjorvatn, B., Thu, E., & Harris, A. (2017). The effects of sleep deprivation on soccer skills. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 124(4), 812-929. https://doi.org/10.1177/0031512517707412

Peppard, P., Barnet, J., Rasmuson, A., Bliwise, D., & Hagen, E. (2017). Sleep duration and quality are associated with cognitive performance in midlike and older adulthood. Sleep Medicine, 40(1), 258. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleep.2017.11.756

Pina, J., Passos, A., Araújo, D., & Maynard, M. (2018). Football refereeing: An integrative review. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 35, 10-26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2017.10.006

Plessner, H., & Haar, T. (2006). Sports performance judgments from a social cognitive perspective. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 7(6), 555-575. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2006.03.007

Rainey, D. (1995). Sources of stress, burnout, and intention to terminate among basketball referees. Journal of Sport Behaviour, 22(4), 578-590. https://doi.org/10.1080/026404199365515

Rainey, D., & Hardy, L. (1999). Sources of stress, burnout and intention to terminate among rugby union referees. Journal of Sports Sciences, 17, 797-806. https://doi.org/10.1080/026404199365515

Rainey, D., & Winterich, D. (1995). Magnitude of stress reported by basketball referees. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 81(3), 1241-1242. https://doi.org/10.2466/pms.1995.81.3f.1241

Reilly, T., & Edwards, B. (2007). Altered sleep–wake cycles and physical performance in athletes. Physiology and Behaviour, 90(2-3), 274-284. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2006.09.017

Rogers, N., Dorrian, J., & Dinges, D. (2003). Sleep, waking and neurobehavioural performance. Frontiers in Bioscience, 8, 1056-1067. https://doi.org/10.2741/1174

Samuels, C. (2012). Jet lag and travel fatigue: a comprehensive management plan for sport medicine physicians and high-performance support teams. Clinical Journal of Sports Medicine, 22(3), 268-273. https://doi.org/10.1097/JSM.0b013e31824d2eeb

Scanlan, A., Humphries, B., Tucker, P., & Dalbo, V. (2014). The influence of physical and cognitive factors on reactive agility performance in men basketball players. Journal of Sports Sciences, 32(4), 367-374. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2013.825730

Scott, J., McNaughton, L., & Polman, R. (2006). Effects of sleep deprivation and exercise on cognitive, motor performance and mood. Physiology and Behaviour, 87(2), 396-408. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2005.11.009

Skein, M., Duffield, R., Minett, G., Snape, A., & Murphy, A. (2013). The effect of overnight sleep deprivation after competitive rugby league matches on postmatch physiological and perceptual recovery. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance, 8(5), 556-564. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.8.5.556.

Stewart, B., & Smith, A. (2000). Australian sport in a postmodern age. The International Journal of the History of Sport, 17(2), 278-304. https://doi.org/10.1080/09523360008714137

Stewart, M., & Ellery, P. (1996). Amount of psychological stress reported by high school volleyball officials. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 83(1), 337-338. https://doi.org/10.2466/pms.1996.83.1.337

Taylor, A., Daniel, J., Leith, L., & Burke, R. (1990). Paths from perceived stress to psychological burnout, satisfaction, turnover intentions and actual dropout among soccer officials. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 2(1), 84-97. https://doi.org/10.1080/10413209008406422

Thun, E., Bjorvatn, B., Flo, E., Harris, A., & Pallesen, S. (2015). Sleep, circadian rhythms, and athletic performance. Sleep Medicine Reviews, 23, 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smrv.2014.11.003

Watson, N. B. (2015). Joint consensus statement of the American Academy of Sleep Medicine and Sleep Research Society on the recommended amount of sleep for a healthy adult: Methodology and discussion. Journal of Clinical Sleep Medicine, 11(8), 931-52. https://doi.org/10.5665/sleep.4886

Weston, M., Castagna, C., Impellizzeri, F., Bizzini, M., Williams, M., & Gregson, W. (2012). Science and medicine applied to soccer refereeing. Sports Medicine, 42(7), 615-631. https://doi.org/10.2165/11632360-000000000-00000

Williams, A. M., & Davids, K. (1995). Declarative knowledge in sport: A byproduct of experience or a characteristic of expertise? Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 7(3), 259-275. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.17.3.259

Xing, C., & Sun, J. (2013). The role of psychological resilience and positive affect in risky decision-making. International Journal of Psychology, 48(5), 935-943. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207594.2012.729840